The Dominant Themes and Intersecting Motifs in the Book of Hebrews

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Abstract

The Book of Hebrews is a theologically rich New Testament epistle aimed at encouraging early Jewish Christians to remain steadfast in their faith amidst pressures to revert to Judaism. Six themes dominate the book, namely: Christ's supremacy, the new covenant, Christ's priesthood, faith and perseverance, the call to holiness and worship, and the warning against rejecting Christ's sufficient atonement. These are unified by four interwoven motifs: rest, covenant fulfilment, access to God's presence, and perfection.

Hebrews extensively relies on the Old Testament. This grounds its claims, using Old Testament scriptures to demonstrate Christ's fulfilment of God's redemptive plan.

The theme of Christ's supremacy presents Him as superior to angels, Moses, and the Levitical priesthood, fulfilling Old Testament promises and leading believers into God's rest. The new covenant, superior to the Mosaic Law, offers forgiveness and direct access to God, completing Old Testament shadows and enabling rest through faith. Christ's eternal priesthood in the order of Melchizedek surpasses the Levitical system, securing access to God's presence and perfecting believers. Faith and perseverance are urged through Old Testament examples, with unbelief warned as barring entry to God's rest. The call to holiness and worship reflects gratitude for the new covenant, requiring a life aligned with God's presence. The warning against rejecting Christ's atonement emphasises the peril of relying on human works or the old sacrificial system, which jeopardises redemption and rest.

The motifs unify these themes: rest symbolises salvation's goal, covenant fulfilment highlights Christ's completion of Old Testament promises, access to God's presence emphasises relational intimacy, and perfection underscores salvation's completion. Each motif, rooted in Old Testament imagery, reinforces Christ's supremacy, the new covenant's efficacy, and the necessity of a faith kept pure from syncretism with any form of works-based salvation. Together, they create a cohesive narrative, exhorting believers to trust fully in Christ's finished work to enter God's rest, access His presence, and receive perfected salvation, fulfilling the Old Testament's promises.

1 Introduction

The Book of Hebrews, a profound epistle in the New Testament, is a theological masterpiece crafted to encourage early Jewish Christians to remain steadfast in their faith in Jesus Christ amidst pressures to revert to Judaism. After discussing the book's Old Testament foundation, this essay explores the six most dominant themes in Hebrews—namely, the supremacy of Christ, the new covenant, the priesthood of Christ, faith and perseverance, the call to holiness and worship, and the critical warning against failing to trust fully in Christ's sufficient atonement. It also examines how the motifs of rest, covenant fulfilment, access to God's presence, and perfection interweave these themes, serving as unifying threads that underscore the book's message of salvation through faith in Christ alone.

This essay argues that Hebrews employs its themes and motifs to exhort believers to trust fully in Christ's finished work, fulfilling and surpassing the Old Testament.

2 Reliance on the Old Testament

The Book of Hebrews heavily relies on the Old Testament to construct its theological arguments, grounding its claims about Christ in the scriptures familiar to its Jewish Christian audience. As John Calvin observes, “The Epistle to the Hebrews is a kind of commentary on the Old Testament, for it explains how the figures and shadows of the Law are fulfilled in Christ, and how the promises given to the fathers are accomplished in Him”.¹ F.F. Bruce notes, “The writer of Hebrews is saturated with the Old Testament; he quotes it directly, alludes to it constantly, and assumes his readers' familiarity with its texts and themes to demonstrate the superiority of Christ and His new covenant”.² Hebrews includes direct quotations from the Septuagint, drawn from texts like the Psalms, Jeremiah, and Leviticus (e.g., Ps 95 in Heb 3:7–11; Jer 31:31–34 in Heb 8:8–12). These quotations, often introduced with phrases like “as it is written” or “the Holy Spirit says,” emphasise their authoritative role. Beyond direct quotes, Hebrews frequently alludes to Old Testament figures (e.g., Melchizedek in Heb 7; Moses in Heb 3) and events (e.g., the wilderness wandering in Heb 3–4), using them as types or shadows fulfilled in Christ. Indirect references permeate the book's discussions of the Law, sacrifices, and priesthood, which assume familiarity with Old Testament institutions (e.g., Lev 16 in Heb 9). This grounding in familiar scriptures bolstered the author's appeal to Jewish Christians facing temptation to either abandon Christ, or to see Christ as an addition to the Levitical ordinances.

In terms of sheer volume, Matthew Capps notes that “Hebrews contains 35 direct quotations from the Old Testament”.³ Gareth Lee Cockerill identifies twenty-eight distinct Old Testament passages cited in the epistle, yielding “a final number of 32 [Old Testament] citations”.⁴ Dana M. Harris reports that George Guthrie speaks of “thirty-seven quotations, [and] forty allusions” to the Old Testament, underlining the letter's pervasive dependence on Scripture.⁵ Harris summarises, “The prevalence of the Old Testament is one of the most striking features of the Epistle to the Hebrews”.⁶

This pervasive Old Testament engagement anchors Hebrews' argument that Christ fulfills and surpasses the old covenant, making the Old Testament indispensable to its message.

3 The Supremacy of Christ

At the heart of Hebrews lies the theme of Christ's supremacy, portraying Him as superior to all figures and institutions of the Old Testament. Hebrews 1:1–4 establishes Jesus as the eternal Son of God, the ultimate revelation who surpasses angels, Moses, and the Levitical priesthood, fulfilling Old Testament prophecies (e.g., Ps 2:7; 2 Sam 7:14). Jonathan Edwards, preaching on Christ's infinite greatness, declared that our Saviour “is infinitely great and high above all… He is higher than the highest angels of heaven… angels themselves are as nothing before him.”⁷ As the Creator and Sustainer of all things (Heb 1:3), Christ therefore alone reigns at the Father's right hand as the supreme Mediator. His exalted status fulfills every Old Testament promise and brings believers into God's eternal rest. In short, “[Christ] has received a more excellent name than Moses” and a priesthood “after the order of Melchizedek” that far surpasses Aaron's (Heb 3:3; 7:17). Christ's glory and authority are thus presented throughout Hebrews 1–4 as utterly beyond any angel or human minister, securing full access to God's presence and the completeness of salvation.

As the creator and sustainer of all things, seated at God's right hand (Heb 1:3), Christ is the sole mediator of salvation. The motif of rest ties directly to this theme, as Christ leads believers into God's true rest, surpassing the temporary rest of the Promised Land under Joshua (Heb 4:8–10, referencing Ps 95). Christ's divine authority ensures a rest surpassing Joshua's, as His eternal mediation secures what temporary leaders could not. Covenant fulfilment underscores Christ's role as the culmination of Old Testament promises (Heb 1:1–2), as Augustine notes, “Christ is the end of the law, the prophets, and the patriarchs; in Him all things are fulfilled”.⁸ Access to God's presence is enabled by His exalted position (Heb 4:16), and perfection highlights Christ as the pioneer of salvation, made “perfect through suffering” (Heb 2:10, alluding to Old Testament suffering servant imagery of, e.g., Isa 50:4–9 & 52:13–53:12).

The Book of Hebrews strongly affirms the divinity of Christ, a truth that undergirds his supremacy over all things. From the outset, the author presents Jesus as the Son of God, through whom God created the universe and who is “the exact representation of his being” (Heb 1:2-3). This language identifies the Son as the sustainer of all things and the one who has purified sins, roles attributed to God himself. Moreover, in Hebrews 1:8, the author quotes Psalm 45:6-7, where God addresses the Son as “God,” affirming his divine status and eternal reign. The epistle also emphasises Christ's unchanging nature in Hebrews 13:8, stating that “Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever,” a declaration that aligns with God's immutability (e.g., Mal 3:6). As scholar William Lane observes, “The affirmation of the Son's deity is integral to the argument of Hebrews, establishing his unique qualifications as the mediator of salvation”.⁹ Thus, through these scriptural references and theological assertions, Hebrews unequivocally establishes Christ's divinity as central to his supreme authority and salvific work.

Flowing naturally from Christ's supremacy is the establishment of a new covenant, for His exalted status not only fulfils the promises of the old but inaugurates a superior covenantal relationship that renders the former obsolete.

4 The New Covenant

Hebrews contrasts the old covenant, rooted in the Mosaic Law, with the new covenant established through Christ's sacrifice. This new covenant is superior, offering forgiveness and direct access to God (Heb 8:6–13, quoting Jer 31:31–34). John Owen affirms, “The new covenant, as foretold by Jeremiah and established by Christ, is the perfection of God's promises, whereby sins are forgiven, and the law is written on the heart, making the old covenant obsolete”.¹⁰ Hebrews 9:15 describes Christ as its mediator, replacing the repetitive sacrifices of the old system (Lev 16) with His once-for-all atonement. The motif of rest connects here, as the new covenant enables believers to enter God's rest through faith (Heb 4:3–5). Covenant fulfilment is central, as the new covenant completes the Old Testament's temporary provisions (Heb 8:13). Access to God's presence is a hallmark, symbolised by the torn temple veil (Heb 10:19–22, referencing Old Testament sanctuary imagery). Perfection is achieved through forgiveness, perfecting believers' consciences where the old covenant failed (Heb 10:1–4, 14), as R.C. Sproul notes, “The new covenant in Hebrews is the fulfillment of Jeremiah's prophecy, where Christ's once-for-all sacrifice replaces the repeated offerings of the old covenant”.¹¹

4.1 Debates over Covenant Continuity and Discontinuity

The portrayal of the new covenant in Hebrews has sparked significant scholarly debate regarding its relationship to the old covenant. This debate, which centres on the extent of continuity and discontinuity between the two covenants, is crucial for understanding how Hebrews presents the new covenant as superior and how this superiority relates to the epistle's broader themes and motifs. While the previous section established the new covenant's role in offering forgiveness and direct access to God, the question remains: does this new covenant represent a radical break from the old, or does it fulfil and perfect what the old covenant foreshadowed?

Hebrews itself provides seemingly contrasting signals. On one hand, Hebrews 8:13 declares that “by calling this covenant ÔÇÿnew,'┬áhe has made the first one obsolete; and what is obsolete and outdated will soon disappear,” suggesting a sharp discontinuity. This perspective is echoed by scholars like Thomas Schreiner, who argues that Hebrews presents a theology of covenantal displacement, in which the Mosaic covenant becomes nullified in light of Christ's superior priesthood and sacrifice.¹² Such a view underscores the radical nature of Christ's work, rendering the old covenant's sacrificial system entirely obsolete and emphasising the urgency of embracing the new covenant fully. This interpretation aligns with Hebrews' stark warnings against reverting to the old system (e.g., Hebrews 10:26–31), as doing so would mean rejecting the only sufficient means of atonement.

On the other hand, Hebrews also portrays the new covenant as the fulfilment of promises embedded in the old covenant, suggesting a deep continuity. Peter O'Brien notes that while the old covenant is depicted as insufficient for salvation, it is never discarded as irrelevant. Instead, the new covenant is presented as the divinely intended consummation of the old, particularly through the prophecy of Jeremiah 31:31–34, which Hebrews quotes at length in 8:8–12.¹³ This motif of fulfilment is further evident in Hebrews 10:1, where the law is described as “only a shadow of the good things that are coming—not the realities themselves.” Thus, the new covenant does not abolish the old arbitrarily but brings its sacrificial, priestly, and prophetic elements to their intended completion in Christ. John Calvin captures this dual perspective, stating, “The old covenant was not contrary to the gospel, but was its cradle; in Christ, the shadows are removed and the truth shines forth”.¹⁴

This scholarly debate is not merely academic; it profoundly shapes how we understand the epistle's dominant themes and intersecting motifs. If the new covenant is seen as a sharp discontinuity, it highlights the transformative nature of Christ's work and the obsolescence of the old system, reinforcing the theme of Christ's supremacy and the peril of rejecting His sufficient atonement, and intensifies warnings like Hebrews 6:4-6, where rejecting Christ leaves no alternative atonement. This perspective also sharpens the motif of rest, as entry into God's rest becomes exclusively tied to faith in Christ rather than adherence to the old covenant's practices. Conversely, viewing the new covenant as a deep continuity enriches our understanding of motifs like covenant fulfilment and perfection. It shows how the old covenant's temporary provisions—such as the Levitical priesthood and repeated sacrifices—find their substance and completion in Christ's eternal priesthood and once-for-all sacrifice. This fulfilment motif underscores that Christ does not discard the old covenant but perfects it, achieving what it could only foreshadow.

Moreover, the way one interprets the relationship between the covenants influences how believers understand their identity and practice under the new covenant. A discontinuity view might lead to a greater emphasis on the distinctiveness of Christian worship and ethics, free from the old covenant's rituals. In contrast, a continuity view could encourage believers to see their faith as the true realisation of Old Testament worship, with Christ as the ultimate High Priest and sacrifice. This perspective deepens the call to holiness and worship (Heb 12:14, 28), as believers are invited to live in grateful response to the fulfilled promises of God.

Ultimately, while Hebrews clearly presents the new covenant as superior and the old as obsolete, the epistle also weaves a narrative of fulfilment that honours the old covenant's role in God's redemptive plan. This nuanced interplay between continuity and discontinuity enriches our understanding of the epistle's themes, particularly the supremacy of Christ and the perfection He achieves for believers. It also reinforces the urgency of the warning against rejecting Christ's atonement, as to spurn the fulfilled covenant is to forfeit the very rest, access, and perfection that the old covenant could never provide.

5 The Priesthood of Christ

Christ's role as the eternal High Priest in the order of Melchizedek, surpassing the Levitical priesthood, is a dominant theme. Hebrews 7:23–28, referencing Ps 110:4, highlights His eternal priesthood, with His single sacrifice perfecting believers forever (Heb 10:11–14). Philip Edgcumbe Hughes states, “The priesthood of Melchizedek, as expounded in Hebrews, reveals Christ as the eternal priest who, by His own blood, secures an eternal redemption”.¹⁵ This priesthood grants access to God's presence (Heb 4:14–16), central to the motif of rest, as the sabbatismos of Heb 4:9–10 reflects God's Sabbath rest, shared through Christ's priestly work (Gen 2:2).

Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386) discusses how Christ's divine-human nature is tied to his eternal priesthood. In his Catechetical Lectures he explains that Jesus was “eternally anointed by the Father to His High-Priesthood on behalf of men”, meaning that Christ's role as High Priest comes directly from God and is set for all eternity. Cyril goes on to emphasise that Christ “is a High Priest, whose priesthood passes not to another”, underscoring that Jesus alone offers the once-for-all sacrifice for sin.¹⁶ This echoes the book of Hebrews: as our perfect God-man High Priest, Christ has entered the heavenly sanctuary to intercede for us and grant us direct access to God, accomplishing what the old priestly sacrifices could only foreshadow (cf. Heb 4:14–16).

Covenant fulfilment is evident, as Christ's priesthood completes the Aaronic system (Heb 7:11–22). Access to God's presence is secured by His mediation (Heb 10:19), and perfection is achieved, as His priesthood makes believers complete (Heb 7:19, 28).

6 Faith and Perseverance

Hebrews emphasises faith and perseverance, particularly in trials. Chapter 11 recounts Old Testament figures who, despite significant failures and moral shortcomings, exemplified enduring faith, encouraging believers to persevere (Heb 10:19–39). Martin Luther observes, “Faith, as Hebrews 11 teaches, is the substance of things hoped for, and by it the saints of old trusted God's promises, looking forward to Christ”.¹⁷ The motif of rest is linked, as Heb 3:12–19, citing Ps 95, warns that unbelief prevents entry into God's rest, while Heb 4:2–3 assures that faith secures it. Abraham's faith (Heb 11:8–10) anticipates the rest fulfilled in Christ (Heb 4:9), illustrating perseverance toward God's promise. Abraham's faith amid uncertainty (Heb 11:8) models perseverance for believers facing persecution. John Wesley adds, “The faith of the patriarchs, as recounted in Hebrews, is our example to persevere in trusting Christ, for without faith it is impossible to please God”.¹⁸ Covenant fulfilment connects, as faith in Christ's work secures Old Testament promises (Heb 11:39–40). Access to God's presence is accessed through faith (Heb 4:16), and perseverance ensures continued access (Heb 10:22). Perfection is received by faith, as believers await completion through Christ (Heb 11:40).

7 The Call to Holiness and Worship

Hebrews urges believers to embrace holiness and worship as vital responses to Christ's redemptive work. Hebrews 12:14 exhorts, “be holy; without holiness no one will see the Lord,” while Hebrews 12:28-29 calls for worship “with reverence and awe.” These commands are not mere ideals but practical expressions of faith. Jonathan Edwards captures this, noting, “True holiness, as urged in Hebrews, is the fruit of faith in Christ's redemption, whereby we live to God's glory and worship Him in reverence”.¹⁹

Holiness entails ethical living, compassion, and peacemaking. Practically, believers can reflect this by making honest choices at work, showing kindness to the marginalised, or mediating disputes with grace (Heb 12:14). This flows from Christ's sanctifying sacrifice (Heb 10:14). Holiness reflects the perfection Christ imparts (Heb 10:14), aligning believers with their completed status. R.C. Sproul underscores its urgency: “Holiness is not optional for the Christian; Hebrews 12:14 declares it essential to see the Lord”.²⁰ Without it, we cannot fully enter God's presence.

Worship, meanwhile, transcends rituals, permeating daily life through gratitude, service, and awe. Simple acts—thanking God for a meal, serving a neighbour, or marvelling at a sunset—become offerings of praise (Heb 13:15-16). Engaging Scripture or creation deepens reverence (Heb 12:28).

These practices interweave with Hebrews' motifs: holiness and worship bring rest (Heb 4:9), fulfil the new covenant (Heb 8:10-12), grant access to God (Heb 12:14), and reflect Christ's perfection (Heb 10:14). Yet, they stem from grace, not obligation (Heb 10:10). Edwards and Sproul affirm that holiness and worship, rooted in Christ's sufficiency, transform believers' lives, fostering peace, integrity, and intimacy with God. But failing to recognise that holiness and acts of worship stem from grace and are rooted in Christ's sufficiency, and thinking that they somehow help towards our redemption, is, in fact, rejecting the sufficiency of Christ's atonement.

8 Warning Against Rejecting Christ's Sufficient Atonement

The warning against failing to accept Christ's atoning work as sufficient, particularly by turning to human works or the Levitical system, is critical. Although these warnings were addressed to Jewish Christians tempted to revert to Judaism, the concept of working towards salvation, thus rejecting Christ's sufficiency, is universal for all Christians.

Hebrews 10:1–4, referencing Leviticus, explains that old covenant sacrifices were shadows, while Christ's sacrifice is definitive (Heb 10:10–14). John Calvin warns, “To reject Christ's sacrifice is to trample underfoot the blood of the covenant, for there remains no other sacrifice for sins”.²¹ Rejecting this truth risks peril (Heb 6:4–6, 10:26–31). Gareth Lee Cockerill adds, “To spurn Christ's once-for-all sacrifice, as Hebrews warns, is to reject the only means of atonement, incurring a judgment far greater than under the old covenant”.²² A stark warning is proffered: unbelief or syncretism bars entry into God's rest (Heb 3:7–19, 4:1–11). Covenant fulfilment underscores the danger, as rejecting Christ's sacrifice negates the fulfilled covenant (Heb 10:29). Access to God's presence is jeopardised by reverting to works (Heb 10:19–22), and perfection is forfeited by rejecting Christ's sacrifice (Heb 10:26–31). Today, this warning applies to reliance on moralism, echoing the legalism Hebrews rejects.

9 The Motifs as Unifying Threads

The motifs of rest, covenant fulfilment, access to God's presence, and perfection unify the six themes, each illuminating a facet of Christ's work. F.F. Bruce observes, “The rest promised in Hebrews is the ultimate fulfilment of God's Sabbath, entered through faith in Christ, who fulfils the Old Testament's types and opens the heavenly sanctuary to believers”.²³ John Owen adds, “Christ's priesthood and sacrifice grant access to God's presence, fulfilling the old covenant's shadows and perfecting believers”²⁴ :

• Rest (katapausis and sabbatismos, Heb 4:9) symbolises salvation's goal, entered through Christ's supremacy, the new covenant, and priesthood, dependent on faith, exhibited in holiness, and jeopardised by unbelief, framed by Old Testament references (e.g., Ps 95).
• Covenant fulfilment highlights Christ's completion of Old Testament promises, surpassing the old covenant through His supremacy, priesthood, and new covenant, requiring faith and inspiring holiness, with warnings against rejecting the fulfilled covenant (e.g., Jer 31).
• Access to God's presence emphasises salvation's relational aspect, enabled by Christ's mediation, secured through the new covenant and priesthood, accessed by faith, expressed in holiness, and lost through syncretism, rooted in Old Testament sanctuary imagery.
• Perfection underscores salvation's completion, achieved by Christ's supremacy, priesthood, and new covenant, received through faith, reflected in holiness, and forfeited by rejecting His atonement, contrasting with the Old Testament's ineffective sacrifices.

Rest is experiential, symbolising salvation's goal; covenant fulfilment is theological, focusing on Old Testament fulfilment; access to God's presence is relational, emphasising intimacy; and perfection is soteriological, highlighting completion. These motifs, grounded in the Old Testament, create a cohesive narrative exalting Christ.

10 Conclusion

The Book of Hebrews weaves a rich theological tapestry grounded in Old Testament imagery and fulfilled in Christ. Its core themes—Christ's supremacy, the new covenant, His eternal priesthood, faith and perseverance, the call to holiness and worship, and the warning against rejecting His atonement—together present a sustained argument for the sufficiency of Christ's work and the necessity of enduring faith. Interwoven throughout are the motifs of rest, covenant fulfilment, access to God's presence, and perfection, each deepening the epistle's message and unifying its structure.

Crucially, Hebrews presents not merely a rejection of the old covenant but a transformative fulfilment of it. While certain elements—such as the Levitical priesthood and repeated sacrifices—are rendered obsolete in light of Christ's once-for-all atonement (Heb 10:1–14), the theological arc of Scripture is not broken but brought to maturity. The new covenant does not abolish God's former dealings but reveals their intended goal in Christ (Heb 8:6–13, 10:1). This dual movement—both discontinuity and continuity—invites readers to interpret Scripture not as static law but as dynamic promise, fulfilled through the incarnate Son and now mediated to believers through faith.

Theologically, this calls readers to embrace Christ as the exclusive and sufficient means of access to God, cautioning against any return to performance-based righteousness or religious syncretism. Practically, Hebrews exhorts believers to perseverance in trials, confident access to God's presence (Heb 4:16), reverent holiness (Heb 12:14, 28), and deep trust in the promises yet to be fully seen (Heb 11:1). The motifs function not only as literary devices but as discipleship tools, guiding believers into experiential rest, covenantal identity, relational intimacy, and the hope of perfected salvation.

Ultimately, Hebrews compels a response: to trust fully in the sufficiency of Christ's finished work, to live in gratitude for God's fulfilled promises, and to await, with patient perseverance, the final consummation of the salvation already secured.

Bibliography

Augustine. “On the Spirit and the Letter.” Pages┬á83–114 in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Volume 5. Edited by Philip Schaff. Translated by Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing, 1887.

Bruce, F. F. The Epistle to the Hebrews. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by John Owen. Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1853.

Capps, Matthew Z. Hebrews: A 12-Week Study. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2015.

Cockerill, Gareth Lee. The Epistle to the Hebrews. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012.

Cyril of Jerusalem. “Catechetical Lectures.” In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Volume 7. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Lecture 12. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1894.

Edwards, Jonathan. “The Excellency of Christ.” Pages┬á565–94 in Sermons and Discourses, 1738–1742. Edited by Harry S. Stout. Vol.┬á19. The Works of Jonathan Edwards. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

_________. “A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections.” In The Works of Jonathan Edwards. Edited by John E. Smith. Vol.┬á2. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.

Harris, Dana M. “The Use of the Old Testament in the Epistle to the Hebrews.” Southwestern Journal of Theology 64.1 (2021): 92–106.

Hughes, Philip Edgcumbe. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.

Lane, William L. Hebrews 1–8. Vol.┬á47A. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1991.

Luther, Martin. “Lectures on Hebrews.” Pages┬á109–241 in Luther's Works. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan. Vol.┬á29. St. Louis: Concordia, 1968.

O'Brien, Peter T. The Letter to the Hebrews. Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.

Owen, John. An Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Edinburgh: Johnstone; Hunter, 1854–1855.

Schreiner, Thomas R. Covenant and God's Purpose for the World. Short Studies in Biblical Theology. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2017.

Sproul, R. C. The Holiness of God. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1985.

Wesley, John. Explanatory Notes upon the New Testament. London: Epworth, 1755.

Source	Access Type	Platform/Link	Notes
Augustine – On the Spirit and the Letter (1887)	✅ Free	https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf105.html	In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 5
Bruce, F. F. – The Epistle to the Hebrews (1964)	❌ Paywalled	https://books.google.com	NICNT series; available via libraries or Logos
Calvin, John – Commentaries on Hebrews (1853)	✅ Free	https://archive.org/details/commentariesonep00calvuoft	Calvin Translation Society edition
Cyril of Jerusalem – Catechetical Lectures (1894)	✅ Free	https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3101.htm	In NPNF, Second Series, Vol. 7; also on CCEL
Cockerill – The Epistle to the Hebrews (2012)	❌ Paywalled	https://www.worldcat.org/title/epistle-to-the-hebrews/oclc/774021037	NICNT volume; available in libraries or Logos
Edwards – Religious Affections (1959)	✅ Free	https://ccel.org/ccel/edwards/religiousaffections	Yale edition not free, but original is public domain
Edwards – The Excellency of Christ (2001)	✅ Free (sermon)	https://www.monergism.com/excellency-christ	Full Yale edition not free; sermon is public domain
Hughes – Commentary on Hebrews (1977)	❌ Paywalled	NaN	Library or Logos only
Lane – Hebrews 1–8 (WBC 47A, 1991)	❌ Paywalled	https://books.google.com	WBC volume; available in print or digital
Luther – Lectures on Hebrews (LW 29, 1968)	❌ Paywalled	https://www.projectwittenberg.org/	Full Pelikan edition not free
O’Brien – The Letter to the Hebrews (2010)	❌ Paywalled	https://www.worldcat.org/title/letter-to-the-hebrews/oclc/555667274	Pillar commentary; available in Logos, Kindle, print
Owen – Exposition of Hebrews (1854–55)	✅ Free	https://www.monergism.com/exposition-epistle-hebrews-7-volume-set	Full 7-volume set, public domain
Schreiner – Covenant and God’s Purpose (2017)	❌ Paywalled	https://books.google.com	Part of Short Studies in Biblical Theology series
Sproul – The Holiness of God (1985)	❌ Paywalled	https://www.ligonier.org/store/the-holiness-of-god-paperback/	Available in multiple formats
Wesley – Explanatory Notes on the NT (1755)	✅ Free	https://ccel.org/ccel/wesley/notes	Also available via the Wesley Center
Harris – Use of the OT in Hebrews (2021)	✅ Free	https://equipthecalled.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/SWJT-Vol.-64-No.-1.pdf	SWJT article, free from EquipTheCalled
Guthrie – Structure of Hebrews (PhD diss.)	❌ Paywalled Book	https://www.worldcat.org/title/structure-of-hebrews-a-text-linguistic-analysis/oclc/32346865	Brill (1994), Baker (1998); check libraries or purchase
Guthrie – 'Hebrews' in NT Use of OT (2007)	❌ Paywalled	https://www.logos.com/product/5489/commentary-on-the-nt-use-of-the-ot	Chapter by Guthrie; in Beale & Carson; Logos or print only

Evaluating The Last Reformation

I've been struggling to evaluate the teachings of Torben Søndergaard of The Last Reformation (TLR). He seems to be preaching a Holiness Doctrine. I'm still figuring out whether he is teaching freedom from habitual sin or freedom from all sin (the latter being obviously problematic). Here is a 15-minute video summarising his understanding of freedom from sin. The TLR Pioneer School Lesson 7 explains Søndergaard's understanding in more detail (the main teaching starts at 14:45). I listened again to Mike Winger's sermons on Romans 6 and 7 [Ro 6, Ro 7:1-13, Ro 7:13-25] and found his explanation of the seemingly contradictory ideas of “dead to sin” and “what a wretched man I am” to be helpful.

TLR teaches that baptism by water is essential for salvation.  The Pioneer School Lesson 7, from 47:19 to 1:27:59, and all of Lesson 10 discusses the importance of baptism as it pertains to both salvation and sanctification (which, in my understanding of Søndergaard's teaching, are two sides of the same coin).  Søndergaard teaches that being born of water and spirit refers to baptism by water and by the Holy Spirit and dismisses the idea that being born of water refers to our natural, physical birth. I lean towards a third interpretation: that being “born of water and spirit” refers to two aspects of the same event, as discussed by the GotQuestions.org article on John 3:5.

TLR also has a strong emphasis on obedience. Obviously, obedience is essential, but I can see that some people might not like the idea of losing (or never obtaining) salvation due to a lack of obedience (I see a lack of obedience as a symptom, not a cause, of an “unsaved” life).

The GotQuestions.org article on The Last Reformation is very critical, but I am not sure if they represent all of TLR's positions accurately.

My current position on Torben Søndergaard is that he is doing a generally good work, but may be a little off, theologically, on a few issues. I am attracted to the ideas of TLR, but I'm cautious.

 

Didactic Plenary Inspiration

2 Timothy 3:16-17 (New International Version)
¹⁶ All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, ¹⁷ so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.

Didactic plenary inspiration (DPI) interpretation is a way of interpreting the bible by considering what the scriptures intend to teach is inerrant, but each individual word is not necessarily chosen by God. Matthew Flannagan compares this with the stricter approach of verbal plenary inspiration (VPI) interpretation in his post on inerrancy.

God is Testing You

Deuteronomy 13:1-3 (New International Version - UK)
Worshipping Other Gods
¹ If a prophet, or one who foretells by dreams, appears among you and announces to you a miraculous sign or wonder, ² and if the sign or wonder of which he has spoken takes place, and he says, Let us follow other gods (gods you have not known) and let us worship them, ³ you must not listen to the words of that prophet or dreamer. The LORD your God is testing you to find out whether you love him with all your heart and with all your soul.

James 1:12-14 (New International Version - UK)
¹² Blessed is the man who perseveres under trial, because when he has stood the test, he will receive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love him. ¹³ When tempted, no-one should say, God is tempting me. For God cannot be tempted by evil, nor does he tempt anyone; ¹⁴ but each one is tempted when, by his own evil desire, he is dragged away and enticed.

The LORD your God tests (H5254) you, but does not tempt (G3985) anyone. There must be some difference between testing (H5254) and tempting (G3985). From e-Sword:

H5254
נסה
nâsâh
naw-saw'
A primitive root; to test; by implication to attempt: - adventure, assay, prove, tempt, try.

G3985
πειράζω
peirazō
pi-rad'-zo
From G3984; to test (objectively), that is, endeavor, scrutinize, entice, discipline: - assay, examine, go about, prove, tempt (-er), try.

Is there a better translation of either of these verses that will resolve this conflict? The word highlighted in red in the LXX translation below is similar to G3985 (it just has a different ending), but I have not been able to find a definition for it. Are there any ancient Greek experts out there?

Deuteronomy 13:3 (Septuagint)
(13:4) οὐκ ἀκούσεσθε τῶν λόγων τοῦ προφήτου ἐκείνου ἢ τοῦ ἐνυπνιαζομένου τὸ ἐνύπνιον ἐκεῖνο ὅτι πειράζει κύριος ὁ θεὸς ὑμᾶς εἰδέναι εἰ ἀγαπᾶτε κύριον τὸν θεὸν ὑμῶν ἐξ ὅλης τῆς καρδίας ὑμῶν καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς ὑμῶν

Or is there some other way to interpret what involvement God actually has in verses like Deuteronomy 13:1-3 and 1 Samuel 18:10?

1 Samuel 18:10-11 (New International Version - UK)
¹⁰ The next day an evil spirit from God came forcefully upon Saul. He was prophesying in his house, while David was playing the harp, as he usually did. Saul had a spear in his hand ¹¹ and he hurled it, saying to himself, I'll pin David to the wall. But David eluded him twice.

I found this excerpt on BLB that seems to answer the question quite well:

Jam 1:13-15 seems to contradict other statements of Scripture in two respects, saying

(a) that 'God cannot be tempted with evil,' and

(b) that 'He Himself tempteth no man.'

But God tempted, or tried, Abraham, Hbr 11:17, and the Israelites tempted, or tried, God, 1Cr 10:9. Jam 1:14, however, makes it plain that, whereas in these cases the temptation or trial, came from without, James refers to temptation, or trial, arising within, from uncontrolled appetites and from evil passions, cp. Mar 7:20-23. But though such temptation does not proceed from God, yet does God regard His people while they endure it, and by it tests and approves them.

[From Notes on Thessalonians, by Hogg and Vine, p. 97.]

Keep it Simple

When interpreting scripture, is the most logically parsimonious solution necessarily correct? Or is that just a hang-over from modern rationalism?

Christian Unitarianism vs. Trinitarianism

In response to my post discussing whether God the Father left God the Son when He was on the cross, Adam Pastor posted a comment suggesting to watch the video The Human Jesus, which promotes Christian Unitarianism. I thought that rather than derailing that discussion too much, I would make a separate post to discuss this issue. Admittedly, the topic does fall outside of my own guidelines, as outlined in the “Baseline” section of the introductory post, but I think it is important to weigh up any belief against the scriptures.

I have copied my comments from the other post below.

A couple of thoughts about the video:

A major difficultly, is seems, for unitarians is understanding how Jesus can be both fully God and fully human (see video at 25 minutes 30). It is hard for some modern rationalists to understand, I suppose, but the limits of human understanding doesn't limit God. If that were the case, then God is our creation (or at least our servant) — we are God's god.

An interesting point mentioned in the video (23 minutes 50) is that there are verses that seem to promote the deity of Christ and the Holy Spirit, in apparent conflict with Deuteronomy 6:4. Trinitarians, according to the interviewee (Dan Mages), have tried to come up with a theology that solves this apparent conflict. My question about this is, isn't that what we're meant to do? If there are some apparently conflicting verses, shouldn't we try to work out how to interpret them so there is no contradiction? Otherwise we just have to accept that some of the verses are simply wrong.

It would have saved my time if the weak arguments (e.g., post-biblical era tradition and culture) for both sides of the discussion were omitted and just the solid arguments (that is, basically, just the exegesis of the scriptures) were presented.

About the humanity of Christ: He chose not to exercise His divine privileges while He was on Earth. He chose to subject Himself to the temptations that face mankind.

What I'd find useful, is a table listing all the scripture used to support trinitarianism in one column, and the unitarian rebuttals in another column. Then, a similar table listing all the scripture used to support unitarianism in one column, and the trinitarian rebuttals in another column.

One Jehovah — Did the Father Leave the Son on the Cross?

Deuteronomy 6:4 (Young's Literal Translation)
⁴Hear, O Israel, Jehovah our God [is] one Jehovah;

God cannot look upon sin, and that is why He turned his face away from Christ when He took our sins upon Himself on the cross. Right? That it what I have always been taught.

Come on all you teachers! Do we believe in one God, or not? Do we believe in the Trinity—one God expressed as three Persons? Do we belive in the Incarnation? Because, if we do, we cannot assert that God the Father forsook God the Son, at any time. Below is a short essay on this subject by Bob Passantino.

Did the Father Leave the Son on the Cross?
By Bob Passantino, © 1991

On the cross Jesus said, "My God, My God, why have You forsaken Me?" (Matthew 27:46). Many Christians believe this signifies the one and only time that there was a split between the first two persons of the Trinity, that is, between the Father and the Son. The argument asserts that when Jesus "became sin," the Father was unable to look upon him, hence he "forsook" Jesus. This argument seeks to emphasize the great cost to Christ on our behalf. He was even willing to endure separation from the Father to accomplish our salvation. However, I believe such an interpretation, while well intentioned, has heretical implications.^[1] It is a denial of belief in one eternal, indivisible God.

First, if the Father cannot look upon sin, meaning that he had to turn away from the Son on the cross (and I have found no verse which says that), then what does that say about the character and deity of Jesus? Is Jesus somehow less than God, so that he can "look upon" the sin that was laid on him on the cross? Or does he simply have a stronger stomach for sin than the Father? Or perhaps Jesus is more merciful than the Father, able to suffer what the Father cannot even face? It is interesting that in Genesis 6:5, God looked upon the sin of mankind. When scripture says that God cannot "look" upon sin, contextually it means he cannot look with approval upon sin. His consistent reaction to sin is just judgment - against the unrepentant sinner, or through the atonement of Jesus Christ, the one who died in our place and on our behalf.

Second, Jesus quoted the beginning of Psalm 22 when he stated "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?" The Psalm is referred to previously in the same passage. The common Jewish way of designating an entire psalm was to refer to the opening lines, since the psalms were not numbered at that time. Jesus did not believe God had forsaken him: this would be lack of faith, which is sin (Romans 14:23), and Jesus never sinned (Hebrews 4:15). He was himself God and always in perfect obedience to the Father. Instead, he referred to the psalm in its entirety as a messianic psalm. That he knew God had not actually forsaken him is clear from the same psalm, which says, "He has not despised nor abhorred the affliction of the afflicted; nor has He hidden His face from Him; But when He cried to Him, He heard" (verse 24). In fact, Jesus was declaring to his accusers that they were in the midst of fulfilling this psalm, which was commonly understood in His day to refer to the coming Messiah, the Suffering Servant. The psalmist himself understood that the "forsaking" of God was not abandonment, but a lifting of His Sovereign protection according to His divine plan so that the threats of his enemies could be carried out in fulfillment of prophecy. In fact, there were many times during Jesus' public ministry when His enemies sought to kill him (John 5:16; 8:59, for examples). They were not able to because, as He said, His "hour" was not yet come (John 12:23-28). He declared to Pilate, "You could have no power at all against Me unless it had been given you from above. Therefore the one who delivered Me to you has the greater sin" (John 19:11). On the day of Pentecost Peter declared that no one could have crucified Christ in defiance of God's power: "Him, being delivered by the determined counsel and foreknowledge of God, you have taken by lawless hands, have crucified, and put to death; whom God raised up, having loosed the pains of death, because it was not possible that He should be held by it" (Acts 2:23-24).

Third, when 2 Corinthians 5:21 says that God made Jesus "to be sin," it means that God made the penalty for all sin to fall upon Jesus, not that Jesus himself could become sin, e.g., sinful. As perfect God and perfect man, he could not sin. 1 Peter 1:19 calls Jesus "a lamb without blemish and without spot."

Fourth, is it reasonable to assume that the Father would desert the Son who was acting in obedience to him through every moment of existence, "obedient to the point of death, even the death of the cross" (Philippians 2:8)? Is it consistent with the character of God for the Father to reward Christ's obedience with rejection? On the contrary, Ephesians 5:2 says Christ's sacrifice was "an offering and a sacrifice to God for a sweet-smelling aroma."

Fifth, it is actually or ontologically impossible for there to be a "split" between any persons of the eternal Trinity. The doctrine of the Trinity, simply defined, is that within the nature of the one true God there are three eternal, distinct Persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. These three Persons are the One God. (We do not believe in a rationally contradictory God of one God in three gods or one Person in three Persons, but one God in three Persons.) While others exist in generic or species identity (such as three humans sharing in humanness), God exists in numeric identity, such that each person is the one God. If all humans but three died, there would not be a trinity of humans, and the nature of humanity itself would not be diminished by the absence of one of the remaining humans. But in the nature of God, His eternal triunity indivisible. Any "split" in the Trinity would result in the destruction of the very being of God.

In conclusion, it is fallible humans who think the Father would reject the Son on the cross. The bond between the Father and the Son is inseparable, not only because of their deity, but because of the complete agreement between their wills, desires, mercy, justice, and love for mankind, exemplified in Christ's great sacrifice on the cross. Isaiah 53:4, a prophetic utterance concerning Jesus Christ, records the erroneous reaction of men to Christ's humiliating death: "Surely He has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we esteemed Him stricken, smitten by God, and afflicted." Christ's declaration on the cross, far from being a admission of separation or abandonment, is a powerful affirmation of God's essential unity, perfect justice, sovereign power, and matchless grace.

For further information on this problem, I recommend James Oliver Buswell's Systematic Theology of the Christian Religion (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1962, Vol. Two, pp. 66-69).

This view and my view are not the only possible interpretations of this passage, and there are interpretations other than mine that do not have implicatory problems. However, it is beyond the scope of this essay to address those alternate interpretations.

Answers In Action
P.O. Box 2067
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aia@answers.org
(copied with permission)

This does raise the question of how to interpret “Your eyes are too pure to look on evil”:

Habakkuk 1:13 (New International Version - UK)
¹³ Your eyes are too pure to look on evil; you cannot tolerate wrong. Why then do you tolerate the treacherous? Why are you silent while the wicked swallow up those more righteous than themselves?

I think we should read this as, “Your eyes are too pure to look on evil and approve of it,” or, as the footnotes in the Spirit-Filled Life Bible say, “God’s very nature cannot allow Him to behold evil without punishing the guilty ones.”